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ee PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW PUBLICATIONS WHOLE No. 154 
NO. 1925 


Psychological Monographs 


EDITED BY 


JAMES ROWLAND ANGELL, Yate University 
HOWARD C. WARREN, Princeton University (Review) 
JOHN B. WATSON, New York (J. of Exp. Psychol.) 
MADISON BENTLEY, Unrversirty or Iturnots (Index) 
. S$. W. FERNBERGER, University oF PENNSYLVANIA (Bulletin) 


Studies from the Psychological Laboratory of the 
University of Chicago 


The Influence of Tuition in the 
Acquisition of Skill 


BY 
TSU LIEN WANG, Pu.D. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW COMPANY 
PRINCETON, N.J. 


Acents: G. E. STECHERT & CO., Lonpon (2 Star Yard, Carey St., W.C.} 
PARIs (16 rue de Condé) 





ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


The present research was conducted under Professor Harvey A. 
Carr, who is not only responsible for devising the problem but 
also for the searching analysis of the data and the revision of the 
manuscript. To him the writer wishes to acknowledge his deepest 
obligation. 

Acknowledgment must also be made of Professors Rutledge 
T.Wiltbank and Forrest A. Kingsbury, whose assistance in se- 
curing’ the subjects for this research has been invaluable. 





CONTENTS 


- EFFECT OF VARIOUS AMOUNTS OF INFORMATION... 


EFFECT OF INFORMATION GIVEN AT VARIOUS 
POST CIUM Saar cae a eee accents Ree aeicw ers he. te Se a's 


ENTORMATIONS op es sack x. NO eis Weer ied ates on 
EFFECT OF VARIOUS DISTRIBUTIONS OF 


EFFECT OF INFORMATION CONCERNING TYPES OF 
ERROR Bee re ee Oe, Se eee: 


INSTRUCTIONAL vs. INFORMATIONAL METHODS OF 
RSET LO War ete he eee ee et eee a hate, Gees Shays end 


tS 


20 





CHAPTER I 


INTRODUCTION 


In almost all the work on learning the experiments are con- 
ducted in such a way that the subject performs the assigned task 
without any interference on the part of the experimenter during 
the period of learning. In the experimental work on memory, for 
instance, the subject is given some kind of material to learn; but 
in no case does the experimenter offer him any assistance or 
suggestion during either the process of memorizing or recall. 
In acquiring acts of skill, the subject does not receive any coach- 
‘ing from the experimenter during the period of practice. In 
learning a maze the subject is asked to master the problem in as 
short a time and with as few errors as possible. During any one 
trial or in any part of the experiment, he is given no aid. In fact, 
in most of the experiments on learning the experimenter pur- 
posely takes the precaution to avoid influencing the subject in any 
way either by word or manner. 

On the other hand, the experimenter may purposely introduce 
some suggestion, advice or guidance from time to time, in order 
to study its effect upon the process of learning. Such an attempt 
on the part of the experimenter to give some assistance to the 
subject while learning may be called a process of tuition. 

In human psychology the only work devoted exclusively to the 
study of the influence of tuition upon learning is that of Miss 
Ludgate on “The Effect of Manual Guidance upon Maze Learn- 
ing.’’* Tuition was given in the form of manual guidance. The 
experimenter guided the subject’s hand over the correct path- 
way of the maze for a given number of trials and let him com- 
plete the learning without further assistance. She found that such 
guidance was helpful in most cases. In the field of animal psy- 
chology the tuition method has been used by Thorndike.’ He put 
his cats through some problem boxes, but concluded that this 
1Ludgate, Katherine E., “The Effect of Manual Guidance upon Maze Learn- 
ing.” Psychological Review Monograph Supplement, Vol. xxxuz, No. 148. 


2 Thorndike, Edward L., “Animal Intelligence,” Psychological Review Mono- 
graph Supplement, Vol. 11, No. 4. 


2 TSU LIEN WANG 


mode of tuition was not very successful. Lashley,® in the study 
of the relation of the distribution of practice to the rate of learn- 
ing adopted the tuition method in one case in which “the animals 
were not allowed to correct the errors but were returned imme- 
diately to the starting compartment if they entered a cul de sac 
or turned back along the correct path.” Here tuition did produce 
a beneficial effect. 

The purpose of the present investigation was to study the in- 
fluence of verbal means of tuition upon maze learning. Two 
forms of tuition were employed: (1) The method of Instruction 
and (2) The method of Information. In the first method, the 
subject was guided over the correct pathway by being told in 
which direction to move the stylus, in order to discover the effect 
of error prevention upon the ability to learn the maze. In the 
second method, the subject was informed of each error as it 
was made in order to ascertain whether a knowledge of one’s 
mistakes will aid in their elimination. This information was im- 
parted in one of three ways: (1) By counting after the comple- 
tion of each error: The subject was informed that the experi- 
menter would count aloud each error just after it was made. 
(2) By counting at the beginning of each error: In this case the 
experimenter counted aloud just as the subject started to enter 
a cul de sac or to return over the true path. (3) By naming each 
error after it was made. The experimenter called out ‘blind’ for 
each entrance into a cul de sac and ‘backward’ for each return over 
a section of the true pathway. Care was taken to prevent all other 
sources of suggestion beyond those enumerated. No other verbal 
comment of any sort was made while the maze was being mas- 
tered. All visual sources of suggestion were eliminated by the use 
of a screen which entirely shielded the experimenter from the 
sight of the subject. 


Problems 


The problems involved in this investigation may be set forth 
in the following series of propositions: 
(1) To study the influence of tuition in maze learning by com- 


8 Lashley, K. S., “A Simple Maze: with Data on the Relation of the Distribu- 
tion of Practice to the Rate of Learning,” Psychobiology, Vol. 1, No. 5. 


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4 TSU LIEN WANG 


Ludgate in her research referred to above. Its dimensions were 
41.5 cm. by 42.0 cm. The correct pathway had length of 174 
cm. and the blind alleys, 119.3 cm. The stylus consisted of a 
small circular disc, 2 cm. in diameter, which was attached to 
the hard rubber handle by a ball and socket joint. The maze was 
so constructed that the stylus could not be removed from the 
grooves except at the entrance or at the goal end. The stylus was 
inserted in the groove at the entrance and the subject was in- 
structed to discover the location of the goal end. When the goal 
was reached, thus marking the end of a trial, the stylus was re- 
moved from the groove and placed back at the starting point for 
the next trial. The maze was firmly fastened to a small table. 
Over it was erected a square wooden framework of a height of 
about 4o cm. The whole frame was covered with black canvas 
save on the side towards the experimenter. This arrangement hid 
the maze and the experimenter from the sight of the subject, but 
allowed the experimenter to watch the subject’s movements while 
mastering the maze. 


Procedure 


Three hundred and fifteen subjects mastered the maze under 
twenty-six different conditions. Almost all of the subjects were 
drafted from the classes of introductory psychology. A great 
majority of them were either sophomores or juniors in the uni- 
versity. All were without any previous maze experience. 

Before each subject started the experiment, a typewritten sheet 
of General Instructions and another sheet of Special Instructions 
for his particular group were handed to him. Only the General 
Instructions sheet was given to the members of the normal group. 
The subject was requested to read the Instructions carefully and 
to delay the beginning of the experiment until he thoroughly un- 
derstood them. The General Instructions follow: 

“When the experiment begins, sit squarely in front of the 
table as closely as convenient. Place your hand beneath the cur- 
tain and I will give you a stylus. Use either hand you prefer. 
Hold the stylus in the vertical position and do not allow your 
hand to come in contact with the maze during the course of the 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 5 


experiment. The stylus moves freely in the grooves of the maze. 
There is but one place in the maze where the stylus can be lifted 
out of the groove. The object of each trial is for you to move 
the stylus about in the grooves, exploring all paths in the at- 
tempt to discover this place with as few moves as is possible. I 
will inform you when you reach this position, in case you do not 
recognize it. There is but one correct route from the beginning 
of the maze to this goal and the route remains constant from 
trial to trial. In addition to the correct pathway there are a num- 
ber of blind alleys. Any entrance into a blind alley, and any re- 
tracing of the correct path will be counted as an error. The ob- 
ject of the experiment is to learn in as few a number of trials as 
is possible to move the stylus over the correct path without mak- 
ing any error. The maze will be considered learned when you 
are able to make four correct trials in succession. Use any speed 
you prefer. Speed does not count in the records.” 

The Special Instructions for each group will be given later. 

As soon as the subject started to work, the experimenter re- 
frained from any kind of utterance, except that which has been 
specified. The screen eliminated all possibilities of suggestion 
from the experimenter’s facial expression or bodily movements. 
The subject was required to finish the experiment in one sitting. 
Between trials a rest of a few seconds was always required. Brief 
periods of rest were also permitted during the long initial trials. 
These intervals of rest were interpolated at the discretion of the 
experimenter. 

The subjects were required to master the maze until they were 
able to run four perfect trials in succession. For each trial there 
were recorded the time in seconds, the total number of errors, 
the number of cul de sac and return errors, and the number of 
errors made for each cul de sac. Some of the detailed data were 
desired for the study of individual differences. It was purposely 
stated in the General Instructions sheet that “speed does not 
count” so as to allow full play to the individual’s peculiarities in 
the time record. 

The experimental conditions were kept as nearly constant as 
possible. The experiments were always conducted in the same 


6 TSU LIEN WANG 


room and at various times during the day. In order to minimize 
the diurnal effect, the time of experimentation for the subjects 
in any one group was distributed as widely as possible through- 
out the day. The possibility of sex differences was also taken into 
account and minimized by distributing as equally as possible the 
number of both sexes in any group. . 


Group Notations 


In order to avoid confusion, the various groups of subjects 
were given different notations. Capital letters indicated the kind 
of tuition employed; numerals, the amount given; and small let- 
ters, the position in which it was given. Thus A-1-a, for example, — 
means that the A form of verbal suggestion was given during 
the first trial only. 

The notations for the different groups are: 

N == Normal group in which no tuition was employed. 

D = Groups where verbal instructions were given. 

A, B, and C == Three modes of giving information (A = 
counting at the completion of each error; B = counting at the 
point of making each error; C = naming each error after it was 
made. ) 


CHAPTER. II 


THE INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD OF TUITION 


The experiments reported in this chapter were conducted in 
order to ascertain the effect of guidance by means of verbal in- 
structions upon the process of learning a stylus maze. By means 
of these instructions the subjects were guided over the correct 
pathway for a given number of initial trials, and thereafter they 
were required to complete the learning of the maze without any 
further aid. This procedure prevented the subjects from making 
any error during the guided trials and the experiment was de- 
signed to study the effect of this initial guidance upon the sub- 
sequent unguided trials. 

Five groups of ten subjects each received different amount of 
verbal instruction during the initial trials. They are designated 
as the controlled groups. The conditions under which these 
groups learned the maze are summarized in the following table: 


TABLE 1 
Conditions for the Controlled Groups 
No. of 
Group Designation No. of Subjects Initially Guided 
Trials 
D-1 -a 10 I 
D-2 -ab 10 2 
D-4 -abed 10 4 
D-8 -a...h 10 8 
6 


D-16-a...p 10 | I 


For all of the controlled groups the typewritten General In- 
structions were read by the subject. In addition to this a type- 
written sheet of Special Instructions was also read by each sub- 
ject. The Special Instructions for the different groups were the 
same except that the number of the guided trials was specified 
differently for each group. The Special Instructions sheet for 
group D-1-a is given as an example: 

“In your case, I shall give you during the first trial only verbal 
instructions while running the maze, which if followed carefully 


8 TSU LIEN WANG 


will enable you to run the maze without error. As you approach 
a critical point in the maze, I will say aloud ‘right,’ ‘left,’ “for- 
ward’ or ‘backward’ as the case may be. In case you make an 
error in spite of the instructions, I will say ‘turn back.’ If you go 
relatively slowly, and follow the instructions carefully, no error 
will be made. The purpose of this experiment is to discover 
whether these instructions given for a certain number of trials 
will enable you to run the maze more readily than you would 
without them.” 

The results of these controlled groups are to be compared with 
those of a group of fifteen subjects, who learned the same maze 
without any verbal instructions. This group is known as the 
normal (N). These results can also be compared with some of 
Miss Ludgate’s data in order to study the relative effect of verbal 
and manual guidance. 

Two problems will thus be investigated in this chapter. 


1. Is the method of error-prevention by means of verbal in- 
structions an aid in learning? What is the relationship between 
the amount of verbal instruction and the degree of its effective- 
ness ? 


2. What is the relative value of verbal and manual means of 
guidance? 


1. The Effect of Verbal Instruction upon Learning 


The comparative data for the first problem are given in tables 
2 and 3. Table 2 gives the average scores per individual for trials, 
the number of retracing and cul de sac errors, the total number 
of errors, the average number of errors per trial, and the final 
speed in seconds (1.e., the average speed for the last four trials). 
In this and in all the later tables the individual variability within 
a group is expressed in terms of M.D. Table 3 gives the per- 
centages of saving for each of these items for each of the con- 
trolled groups. 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 9 


TABLE 2 
Records of Normal and Controlled Groups 














Errors Errors 
Groups Trials Redan del tba tan en Soe) lls per Final Speed 
Retrac.| Blind Total Trial 
N 31.6 + 9.33 67.4 | 138.7 |206.1% 88.01; 7.11 |12.68+ 1.64 
D-1 -a 21.9 + 4.90 31.9 78. 7a ELO.O 1 O4,04 1] MA 2l an 25-70 Sak 7.22 
D-2 -ab 19.0 + 7.00 15.4 20:8) 1256.2 56.28) 2.25 1122.23. 65 
D-4 -abed | 16.5 + 7.26 14.0 | 19.6£17.44] 1.03 | 2680+ 12.79 


5.6 
D-8 -a...h| 28.2+7.40 See irzo. 1 34 eho; BA 2alas ce oy Bo 
D-16-a...p| 33.0 + 7.60 &8 16.8 | 25.6 19.40] 0.69 | 24.90 + 10.54 


TABLE 3 


Percentages of Saving Due to Verbal Instructions 





Errors 
Groups Trials Errors per Final Speed 
Trial 
D-1I -a 30.82% 50.71% 40.93% —102.68% 
D-2 -ab = 39.08 Vk 68.35 — 75.31 
D-4 -abcd 47.88 90.48 85.51 —I11.36 
D-8 -a...h 10.92 83.22 83.96 — 84.70 
D-16-a...p —4.23 87.58 90.29 — 96.37 


The factual data may be summarized as follows: 


(1) With one exception verbal guidance operated to decrease 
the number of trials required to learn the maze, the total number 
of errors, and the average number of errors per trial. It increased 
the record for the final speed. 

(2) On the average, verbal guidance affected the score for the 
final speed most, the error record next, and the trial record least. 
The records of the guided groups showed a saving of 76.94% 
and 25.49% respectively for errors and trials, and a loss of 
94.08% on final speed. 

(3) The efficacy of the guidance as measured by the trial and 
error records varied with the amount of guidance given. In a gen- 
eral way, its effectiveness at first increased and then decreased, 
as the number of the guided trials was increased. When the ef- 


10 TSU LIEN WANG 


ficiency of the guidance was measured by the record for the 
final speed, there was no definite relationship between the amount 
of guidance and the degree of its effectiveness. Four guided 
trials was the most effective number employed. It exerted the 
most effect upon the records for trial, error and final speed. 

(4) Guidance exerted a slightly greater effect upon the amount 
of retracing than it did upon the number of entrances into the 
cul de sacs. 

(5) Guidance increased the relative amount of individual 
variability in the records for error and final speed. No consistent 
effect upon the trial records can be noted. 

The pronounced effect of the guidance upon the error record is 
due in the main to the fact that no errors were made during the 
guided trials. The saving in errors due to the immediate effect 
of guidance is given in the fourth column of Table 4. As one 
would naturally expect, the number of errors prevented increases 
with the number of the guided trials. 


TABLE 4 
Error Reduction Due to Guidance 
Saving Saving 
Groups Total Errors | Total Saving during after 
Guidance Guidance 
N 206.1 eaee 

D-I -a 110.6 95.5 79.1 16.4 
D-2 -ab 56.2 149.9 101.8 48.1 
D-4 -abed 19.6 186.5 137.9 48.6 
D-8.-a...h 34.6 171.5 168.9 2.6 
D-16-a...p 25.6 180.5 191.5 —II.0O 


Guidance also exerted an effect upon the error records of the 
subsequent period of learning. This is apparent from an inspection 
of tables 4 and 5. The fifth column of table 4 gives the total num- ° 
ber of errors saved for each guided group during the post-guided 
period of learning. Four guided trials exerted the greatest effect, 
while the influence of sixteen guided trials was detrimental. 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION II 


TABLE 5 


Error Records for the First Twenty Trials 


Trials N. D-I-a D-2-ab | D-4-abcd | D-8-a..h | D-16-a...p 


I 70.1 fe) fe) fe) fe) fe) 
2 vv ay | 24.5 fe) fe) ° O 
3 16.5 20.4 10.1 oO 0) 0 
4 19.6 20.7 5.2 fe) oO fe) 
5 6.3 9.9 4.8 2.6 re) fe) 
6 12.9 7.4 8.6 22 0) fe) 
yi 6.2 Bee 2.9 2.6 fe) (e) 
8 5.6 5.5 2.0 1.6 a) O 
9 2.8 2.3 3.4 8 10.6 fe) 
10 32 2.9 1.5 me) 21 ) 
II 2.9 1.6 1 2 De, oO 
12 3.8 ne ie Ji 1.9 fo) 
13 3.4 rey 1.0 6 Tt O 
14 PAS er 1.0 4 7 fe) 
15 2 4 9 ee 2.0 fe) 
16 1.6 8 sign 1.4 197, O 
17 ays 4 5 6 a) 3.5 
18 1.4 ay 5 5 A 1.6 
19 1.6 iat me 1.1 1.4 I.I 
20 6 5 6 0.0 4 6 

















In table 5 are given the error records of the various groups 
for the first twenty trials. It will be noted that the groups given 
2 and 4 guided trials have an initial error record which is lower 
than that of the normal group after a similar number of un- 
guided trials. In other words, groups given 2 or 4 guided runs 
reach a more advanced stage in the mastery of the problem than 
they would have attained if allowed a similar number of un- 
guided runs. On the other hand, the groups given 1, 8 and 16 
guided trials made a poorer initial error record than did the nor- 
mal group after a corresponding number of unguided trials. 

It is evident that the subjects learned a considerable amount 
about the maze during the guided trials, and that this knowledge 
was utilized effectively in completing the mastery of the problem 
during the post-guided period of learning. 

Subjects can learn more from 1 to 8 guided trials than they 
can from an equal number of unguided runs. Sixteen guided 
trials, however, are less effective than sixteen unguided ones. 


12 TSU LIEN WANG 


The fact that the effectiveness of the guidance first increased 
and then decreased with the number of trials in which it was 
given can be explained in the following manner: Guidance is 
effective because it enables the subject to acquire a knowledge of 
the nature of the true pathway. Only so much can be acquired | 
in this manner and after this limit has been reached, any addi- 
tional guidance will be superfluous and possibly detrimental. 
(1) All superfluous trials will necessarily increase trial and 
error records. (2) Any excessive amount of guidance is apt to 
develop either an attitude of over-confidence or a habit of de- 
pendence. Over-confidence leads to carelessness and many un- 
necessary errors are made and more trials are required for 
their elimination. The subject develops the habit of relying upon 
the experimenter, and becomes confused and helpless when 
thrown upon his own resources. Extra time is required in order 
to adjust to the new situation. 

That guidance exerted a slightly greater effect upon the amount 
of retracing than it did upon the number of entrances into the 
blind alleys can be explained by the fact that it gave the subject 
a knowledge of the general direction of the correct pathway, 
which favored the elimination of the retracing errors. On the 
other hand, this knowledge of the general direction did not in- 
sure the elimination of cul de sac errors to the same extent. 

That guidance operated to decrease the final speed for all the 
controlled groups can be accounted for by the fact that it induced 
within the subjects an attitude of caution which means delay in 
movement. In the cases in which a very small amount of guidance 
was given, this attitude developed during the period of guidance 
persisted in the subsequent trials, and thus decreased the final 
speed. When a large amount of guidance was given, it strength- 
ened this attitude to such an extent that the subjects were ac- 
customed to go slowly around the maze. : 

That verbal guidance tended to increase the relative variability 
of the groups in the records for error and final speed may be ac- 
counted for by the fact that individual differences in the ability to 
learn the maze were emphasized to a greater extent with guidance 
than without. The range between the best and the poorest learn- 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 13 


ers in the normal group is far smaller than that in most of the 
controlled groups. 


2. The Relative Value of Verbal and Manual Guidance 


Since the maze employed in our investigation was the one 
which had previously been used by Miss Ludgate, it is possible to 
compare the value of the two methods of guidance. Five groups 
of subjects in each experiment were given similar amounts of 
guidance. The comparative data are given in table 6. “Manual” 
refers to Miss Ludgate’s data and “Verbal” to ours. 

Miss Ludgate used as her criterion of learning the ability to 
make four perfect runs in five attempts. Our criterion is four 
perfect successive trials. In order to make the conditions com- 
parable, we have computed our data as given in table 6 on the 
same basis as that employed by Miss Ludgate. This procedure 
accounts for the fact that our records as given in table 6 differ 
slightly from those given in table 2. 


TABLE 6 
The Relative Value of Verbal and Manual Guidance 
Trials Errors 
Mamma Giided Liials.| = 
Manual Verbal Manual Verbal 
oO 28.8 27.9 194.5 203.66 
2 23.2 18.8 53.4 56.2 
4 29.1 15.8 72.0 19.6 
8 27.5 25.3 69.8 33.6 
16 41.1 27.8 43.2 22.4 


The results for the two normal groups, those to whom no 
guidance was given, are approximately identical. This fact in- 
dicates that the comparison of the two sets of data is legitimate. 

The verbal method of guidance is the more effective with the 
single exception of the error record for the group with two 
guided trials. 

The two methods differ in the number of trials required to 
secure the optimal effect. With manual guidance, two trials exert 
the greatest effect, while four trials are required for the verbal 
method. 


14 TSU LIEN WANG 


These results must be explained in terms of the differences be- 
tween the two methods. In Miss Ludgate’s experiment, the sub- 
ject grasped the stylus and the experimenter moved it over the 
correct pathway at a uniform rate. The subject was requested to 
maintain as passive an attitude as possible. The experimenter was — 
responsible for the motion of the stylus. Our subjects assumed 
an active attitude. They voluntarily initiated and executed the 
movements in response to our direction. The rate of motion was 
subject to their discretion. 

The greater effectiveness of the verbal method of guidance 
is to be explained in terms of this difference of volitional attitude 
toward the task. It is assumed that a subject will learn more 
about the nature of the requisite arm motion when it is actively 
performed than when it is passively executed. 

The fact that the two methods differ as to the number of trials 
required to develop their maximum effectiveness can be explained 
in two ways: (1) We may assume that very much more can be © 
learned about the true path with the active method of traversing 
it, and hence that more trials are required to attain this limit of 
effective knowledge in spite of the greater efficiency of each trial. 
(2) The manual or passive method is more conducive to the de- 
velopment of the attitudes of carelessness and dependence upon 
the experimenter. These attitudes are developed more quickly, 
and as a consequence their detrimental effects begin to manifest 
themselves after a fewer number of trials. 


GHAP TERI 


THE INFORMATIONAL METHOD oF TUITION 


With the informational method of tuition, three groups of fif- 
teen subjects each were employed. These groups are known as 
A, B, and C respectively. Group A was given the first form of 
the information method; Group B, the second; and Group C, the 
third. In all cases the information concerning their errors was 
imparted during every trial involved in learning the maze. The 
Special Instructions given to the members of each group were 
as follows: 

Group A: “In your case, I shall count out loud the number 
of errors as you make them. I shall count after you have com- 
pleted the error—after you have reached the end of a blind alley, 
or after you have traversed the full length of a straight section 
when retracing the correct path. This procedure will inform you 
of every error after you make it. The purpose of the experiment 
is to discover whether this knowledge will enable you to learn 
the maze more readily.” 

Group B: “In your case, I shall count out loud the number of 
errors as you make them. In each case I shall count just as you 
start to make the error, 1.e., just after entering a blind alley and 
whenever you start to retrace over the correct path. This pro- 
cedure will inform you of every error just as you are beginning 
to make it. The purpose of the experiment is to discover whether 
this knowledge will enable you to learn the maze more readily.” 

Group C: “In your case, I shall inform you of every error 
you make, whether the error is an entrance into a blind alley or 
a return over the correct path. I shall say ‘blind’ after you have 
reached the end of blind alley, and ‘backward’ after you have 
retraced the full length of a straight section of the maze. The 
purpose of this experiment is to discover whether this knowledge 
will enable you to learn the maze more readily.” 

The results of the above groups are compared with those of 
the normal group of fifteen subjects who learned the maze with- 
out assistance. The comparative data are given in tables 7, 8, 


16 TSU LIEN WANG 


and 9. Table 7 gives the gross records, table 8 the percentages 
of saving resulting from those means of tuition, while in table 9 
are found the error records for the first fifteen trials. 





TABLE 7 
Records of Normal and Controlled Groups 
Errors 
Groups Trials Final Speed 
Retracing Blind Total 
N 31.66 + 9.33 67.4 138.7 206.13 + 88.91| 12,68 + 1.64 
A 22°27) 8:32 28.8 74.3 103.2) == 63:22 |s2r-8r == O16 
B 24.93 + 7.38 20.7 58.2 78.9 + 40.66| 20.64 + 7.58 
Cc 2139-737 18.1 42.1 60.2 + 28.66] 25.36 + 9.95 
TABLE 8 
Percentages of Saving due to a Knowledge of Errors 
Errors 
Groups Trials Final Speed 
Retracing Blind 
A 29.65% 57.2770 46.4370 —72.01% 
B 21.25 69.28 58.03 —62.77 
C 32.62 73.14 69.64 —100.00 
TABLE 9 
Error Records for the First Fifteen Trials 
Normal Group GroupA Group B Group C 
Trials | as - oe e 
B iT R B a R B 4k R B 4 
I 32.1 461 782 |14.5 27.3 418 | 5.1 107 15.8 | 49 108 15.7 
2 78 148 226 | 6.5) 12.77 192.1740 81 2% |946 81 nee 
3 SSMIEY W602: 05.8 ee orl Th Oo Ameen 44 62 
4 74.120 20.3.|) 11 4.3) 54:1. 3:8> O.7)030.2, Ace eee 
5 1.4 4.0) M3 | Ol) 2.0 92.2" (P82 Aer Gio eee ere 
6 3.9 749:1 13.08/13, 3:3 2. 4.02.) 65.50 7 ea oe Oe 
7 18 45 63°] O% LY -f.20)°04 199" 2 tales eo Ome 
8 1.3.43 5.6'} OF . 1.4971.5°| O53. 91.0) 2:4mlt og tr omer 
9 0.4) 2.5, 20°}/00 1.2 61.2. || OAR S20 eens eos Teme 
10 0.5) 2.53.0 |°0.3 18° 21° 025 Fraley Zen O:o gene 
II 0.3) 42.6 (2.9.:1'0.0.. 06, 0.6))| 0.17123 1.4) 100.07, sos mine es 
12 0.9 )3:0.4 3.9 | 0.07 1.2'!1.27) 0.3 170.0") 3-2) 07 2A Oe ee 
13 08 29 .3.7'| 0.07 1.0 (1.07}°02) 10. 12; os ™ogeeas 
14 0.90. (1.0 (62:84/\.0.2 9.107. 127) 0.0. ‘1s. 4.317 6.07508 eon 
15 02 19, 2:1 | 0.07 09 0.07| 0.07°6.0 6.07|°0.07 0.7 (O77 





R—Retracing; B—Blind Alley; T—Total. 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 17 


The experiments were designed to answer two general ques- 
tions: (1) To what extent will this information be utilized in 
learning the maze? Will a knowledge of one’s mistakes obtained 
in this manner be of any aid in their elimination? (2) What is 
the relative value of the three forms of the informational method? 

The comparative data of the above tables justify the following 
conclusions: 

The information imparted to the subjects concerning the errors 
operated to decrease the records for trials and errors. But it 
retarded the final speed. 

This knowledge exerted the greatest effect upon the records 
for the final speed, next upon the error records, and least upon 
the trial records. 

The information exerted a slightly greater effect upon the 
errors due to retracing than upon those due to entrances into the 
cul de sacs. 

It is a noteworthy fact that this information very materially 
reduced the number of errors in the first trial. For the three 
groups A, B and C, the percentages of saving in the first trial 
were 46.5, 79.8 and 79.9. The corresponding percentages for the 
entire period of learning were 49.98, 61.22 and 70.79. 

These methods of information exerted no consistent effect up- 
on the relative amount of individual variability within a group. 

The third type of information (Method C) was the most ef- 
fective, when measured in terms of trials, errors and final speed. 

Method B was more effective than A in reducing the error 
record but less effective in decreasing the number of trials re- 
quired to learn the problem and the average final speed employed 
to go over the correct path. The greater effectiveness of method 
B upon the error records was manifested in the initial trial. 

In the usual method of learning the maze, errors may appar- 
ently be made and eliminated without any ideational knowledge 
of their existence. On the other hand, in the controlled groups, 
especially in the later stages of learning, the subject does come 
to recognize many of his errors, and presumably this knowledge 
of one’s mistakes will aid in their elimination. To what extent 
errors are made and eliminated without knowledge and to what 


18 TSU LIEN WANG 


extent their elimination is due to this knowledge we do not know. 

Our experiments, however, do prove that such knowledge may 
be used effectively, for any information imparted to the subjects 
in addition to that which they discover on their own initiative 
very materially reduces the time required to learn. The members 
of the controlled groups who were informed of each error at 
the time it was made were able to master the problem much 
more readily than those subjects who were given no aid. 

One may also infer from these records that many of the errors 
made in the normal method of learning the maze are wholly un- 
necessary. In other words, many might be dispensed with with- 
out affecting the number of trials required to master the prob- 
lem. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that the informa- 
tion given to the subjects operated to reduce the error record 
much more than it affected the number of trials. 

In the usual method of learning, the subjects, in their retrac- 
ing excursions, naturally return a considerable distance toward 
the entrances to the maze. The information very materially re- 
duces the distance of these returns, for the subjects naturally 
turn back when informed of their error. Since a section of the 
path constitutes the unit of error, the information will neces- 
sarily reduce the number of the retracing errors. Since cul de sac 
errors may be made while retracing and again while retraversing 
the section that has just been retraced, it is evident that any 
prevention of retracing will also reduce the number of entrances 
into the cul de sacs. With much retracing the subject becomes 
confused, lost and helpless, and many additional errors are made 
as a result of this confusion. This information serves the pur- 
pose at least of reducing the extent of the retracing excursions 
and thus incidentally affects the number of both types of error. 
This conception probably explains the fact that tuition was ef- 
fective during the initial trial. 

In learning a maze, other things being equal, the oftener one 
goes through it, the faster he travels. In the normal group, the 
subject on the average went through the maze thirty-two times 
before they mastered it, while in the controlled groups the num- 
ber was about twenty-three. Naturally the final speed for the 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 19 


former is greater than that for the latter. There is also another 
way of accounting for this difference. In the normal group the 
subject performs the task on his own accord. In the controlled 
groups the subject is constantly reminded of the mistakes as 
they are made. This outside influence tends to make him work 
more carefully. Caution implies hesitancy in work which in turn 
means slow movement and low speed. 

Methods A and C are alike except that in the latter case the 
subjects are given the additional information as to the kind of 
error made. This additional knowledge accounts for the greater 
effectiveness of the latter method of tuition. 

Methods A and B differ as to the time when the information 
was given. In the first case, the information was imparted at the 
end of a runway,—after the error was completed. In the latter 
method, the information was given just as the runway was en- 
tered. The two methods induced different attitudes on the part of 
the subjects. The information, when imparted at the end of cul 
de sac, will naturally exert no immediate effect upon the subject’s 
behavior. This procedure develops more or less an attitude of in- 
difference. When the information is given at the entrance of a 
cul de sac, the subjects immediately react by inhibiting the move- 
ment. This procedure develops an attitude of caution. The sub- 
jects attempt to anticipate and avoid these errors. This difference 
in attitude may account in part for the greater effectiveness of 
method B. A second explanation may also be suggested. In order 
to be effective in preventing an error, the information must be as- 
sociated with the act of approaching it. The greater effectiveness 
of method B may be due to the fact that the information is im- 
parted at a more opportune moment. The association is more 
readily established because of the closer temporal connection of 
the two factors. The study of the information method of tuition 
will be continued in the next four chapters, each taking up a 
special phase. Only the first type of information (method A) 
will be employed; the other two were discarded on various 
grounds. Method C was discarded on the ground that the terms 
“blind” and “backward” may be unconsciously confused. Method 
B was discarded on account of the greater difficulty of adminis- 
tration. 


CHAPTER LV. 


EFFECT OF VARIOUS AMOUNTS OF INFORMATION 


In this chapter we shall report the experiments primarily con- 
cerned with the study of the effect of giving verbal information 
during a variable number of initial trials. 

The ‘A’ form of verbal information—counting errors when 
completed—was used throughout. | 

Four groups of subjects were used in the experiments, two 
having ten each and two, fifteen. They mastered the maze under 
various conditions. In every case the subject received the verbal 
information concerning his errors during a given number of 
initial trials, and then completed the problem without further aid 
from the experimenter. A group of ten subjects received the in- 
formation during the first trial only and it was designated as 
A-1-a. A second group of fifteen subjects was given the infor- 
mation during the first two trials; this was designated as A-2-ab. 
A third group of fifteen subjects learned the maze with the aid 
of verbal information during the first eight trials, this being 
designated as A-8-a..h. A fourth group of ten subjects received 
the verbal information during the first twelve trials. This was 
designated as A-12-a..1. The Special Instructions Sheet for each 
group was the same as that for group A except that the number 
of trials during which the verbal information was imparted, was 
specified in each case. 

The results of each of these groups were compared with those 
of the normal group of fifteen subjects who learned the maze 
without any kind of information concerning their errors. The 
comparative data are given in tables 10 and 11. Table 10 gives 
the gross records for all these groups and table 11 shows the 
percentages of saving for each of the controlled groups over ° 
the normal group. 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 21 
TABLE 10 


Effect of Verbal Information Upon Learning 


| Errors 
Groups Trials at a as Li itial Soeed 
Retracing| Blind Total 
N 31.66 + 0.33 67.4 138.7 206.13 + 88.91] 12.68 + 1.64 
A- I-a 20.9 + 8.68 42.7 04.3 T3970 us Cathal lin 7O- 9,05 
A- 2-ab 20.4 + 7.54 34.8 74.7 109.4 + 54.86] 18.17 4.24 
A- 8-a..h | 182 £5.58 20.6 67.5 88.1 (= 23.34) 22.74 = 5.70 
A-I2-a..1 | 26.7 + 9.36 R32 90.4 $23.0 0a S850 | ayy 
TABLE 11 


Percentages of Saving of Controlled Groups over Normal Group 





Errors 
Groups Trials ee eee Pitial opeed. 
Retracing Blind 
A- I-a 33.98% 36.6470 32.01 Yo —47.4770 
A- 2-ab 35.50 48.36 46.14 —43.29 
A- 8-a..h ©» 42.51 69.27 51.33 —79.33 
A-I2-a..1 14.81 65.57 34.82 —II1.75 


Two main problems will be considered in this chapter: 


(1) Is the method of verbal information an effective aid in 
learning the maze, irrespective of the amount? 

(2) What is the relative efficiency of the various amounts of 
verbal information? 


The factual data may be summarized as follows: 


(1) Verbal information, whatever the amount, imparted to 
the subjects, was effective in decreasing the number of trials re- 
quired to master the maze, the total number of errors and retard- 
ing the final speed. 

(2) It exerted the greatest effect on the final speed, next on 
error, and least on trial. 

(3) It affected the retracing errors more than the cul de sac 
errors in the majority of cases. 

(4) The group that learned with the aid of verbal informa- 


22 TSU LIEN WANG 


tion during the first eight trials showed the best records in trial 
and error but the poorest in the final speed. Groups which re- 
ceived the information during either a fewer or greater number 
of trials made poorer records. The former excelled the latter in 
the number of trials required to master the problem but not in the 
total number of errors. . 

(5) There was no consistent relationship between the amount 
of verbal information received and the respective records for the 
final speed. } 

The superiority of the records of the verbal information 
groups over that of the normal group may be accounted for by 
two possible influences of the information: (1) the immediate 
and (2) the subsequent. These influences can be brought out 
by comparing the number of errors per trial in the controlled and 
uncontrolled periods with the corresponding data for the normal 
group. The following table gives these comparisons : 


TABLE 12 


Immediate and Subsequent Effect of Verbal Information 


No. of Errors per Trial in 


Groups Controlled Period Uncontrolled Period 
No. | Cor. No.in N.| Saving |} No. | Cor. No. in N.|, Saving 





A- I-a 27.60 70.07 65.00% 4.1 —33.91% 
A- 2-ab 24.26 50.86 52.28 3.5 5.90 
A- 8-a.h 9.97 21.21 54.15 1:5 34.41 
A-I2-a.1 7.07 15.19 49.54 Fh —78.33 





For example, the group given information for the first two 
trials (A-2-ab) made an average error record of 24.26 per trial 
during the period in which the information was given, and an 
average error of 3.31 per trial for the subsequent period of 
learning. The error data of the normal group for the correspond- 
ing trials were 50.86 and 3.5 respectively. The percentages of 
saving due to the information are thus 52.28 and 5.96 for the two 
periods. 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 23 


It is evident from table 12 that the immediate effect of the in- 
formation is always beneficial. The percentages of saving appar- 
ently tend to decrease to a slight extent as the number of trials 
in which the information is given is increased. The subsequent 
effect of the information is sometimes beneficial and sometimes 
detrimental. Its effect varies in a pronounced manner with the 
amount of information given. Its influence is detrimental when 
the amount of information is either too little or too great. 

The relative efficiency of varying amounts of information is a 
function of the combined influence of its immediate and subse- 
quent effects. When both the immediate and the subsequent 
effects are beneficial, the combined effect always produces a better 
-record than either one would alone. When the subsequent effect 
is detrimental, it becomes the controlling factor in determining 
the relative efficiency of these groups. Hence, A-8-a..h is the 
most efficient group not only because the combined effect is 
greater, but also because the subsequent effect is more beneficial 
than that of any other group. Group A-I2-a..1 is the least ef- 
ficient, because the detrimental effect of the information on the 
subsequent uncontrolled trials is very much greater in this group 
than in any other one. 

As a matter of fact in considering the relative efficiency of 
the controlled groups, we can easily dispense with the immediate 
effect of the verbal information, since this effect for each group 
is more or less on a par. The efficiency of a group is practically 
determined by the degree of the subsequent effect of the informa- 
tion. The following table gives the error records for the first fif- 
teen trials for all the controlled groups. The asterisk indicates the 
error record made at the beginning of the post-controlled period. 
It is marked out so as to facilitate the comparison between this 
record and the corresponding one for the normal group. 

The most efficient group is the one in which the subjects 
started at a more advanced stage of learning with the beginning 
of the uncontrolled period than did the normal group at the cor- 
responding point (for instance, 0.9 vs. 2.9). The less efficient 
groups started at a comparatively less advanced stage (44.5 vs. 
22.6 and 25.1 vs. 16.6). 


24 TSU LIEN WANG 








TABLE. 13 
Error Records for the First Fifteen Trials 
Trials N A-I-2 A-2-ab A-8-a..h | A-12-a..1 
I 78.2 27.6 33.8 25.4 24.7 
G: 22.6 44.5* 14.5 24.8 12.3 
3 16.6 137 25.1* i238 23.8 
4 20.3 12.1 7 5.5 10.9 
5 6.3 7.5 5.2 3.9 7.3 
6 13.0 0.4 2.9 2.0 4.4 
7 6.3 2.8 23 1.8 5.4 
8 5.6 oi 17 1.8 4.3 
9 2.9 1.9 1.9 0.9* at 
10 3.0 1.8 LD 0.9 1.2 
II 2.9 2.5 0.9 1.2 2.2 
12 3.9 aa 1.5 1.8 2.3 
13 a7 NY 0.6 0.2 26 
14 2.8 0.4 0.8 2.0 12 
15 27 0.6 0.4 0.3 1.6 


The records for the final speed also throw some light on the 
discussion of the relative efficiency of the various controlled 
groups. There seems to be a negative correlation between the de- 
gree of efficiency and the speed of work. The most efficient group 
is the slowest group. The least efficient one gives the best speed 
record. Groups with the information given during a fewer num- 
ber of trials are more efficient than the one in which the informa- 
tion is imparted to the subjects during a greater number of 
trials; the subjects in the former travelled much more slowly 
than those in the latter. These facts again confirm our conten- 
tion that the low speed in the controlled groups as compared with 
the final speed for the normal group is due to the development 
of the attitude of caution on the part of the subjects in these 
groups, and that the information is responsible for the establish- 
ment of such an attitude. . 

The fact that the subsequent effect of the verbal information in- 
creases with the number of controlled trials and then decreases 
may be explained in the following manner: When the verbal in- 
formation was given for one or two trials only, it could hardly 
be fixed in the subject’s mind well enough to be utilized effect- 
ively in the subsequent uncontrolled trials. This difficulty became 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 25 


greatly lessened, when the information was given in a greater 
number of trials. But when this number was greatly increased, 
the subjects developed an attitude of dependence upon the ex- 
perimenter, and they were at a loss for a time after the control 
was removed. This setback naturally destroyed in part the subse- 
quent beneficial effect of the information. 

There is another reason why the information given for a fewer 
number of trials is comparatively more effective than that given 
for a greater number of trials. When a subject is told that he 
will receive aid during one or two trials only, he exerts more ef- 
fort in them than if given a large number. On the other hand, 
when he knows that he will be given aid for a large number of 
trials, say twelve, he will distribute his effort in proportion to 
the number of controlled trials given. Naturally a subject will 
learn relatively more in two trials in the former case than he will 
in the latter. Inasmuch as about fifty percent of the total errors is 
usually made in the first two trials (48.25% for the four con- 
trolled groups and 53.05%' for another three groups picked at 
random), the importance of these trials can not be overestimated. 
Hence, those who learn more during these trials make a better 
record than those who learn less. It may be argued that in the 
latter case the subjects can still learn in the controlled trials other 
than the first two, and the information received during these 
trials may influence the total record. This is quite true, provided 
that the number of these trials is not too great. That is why 
A-8-a...h is the most efficient group. But when the number of 
these trials becomes too great, the factor mentioned at the close 
of the last paragraph will operate to prolong the error record. 


CHAPTER 


EFFeEct oF INFORMATION GIVEN AT VARIOUS POSITIONS 


The purpose of the experiments reported in this chapter is to 
study the effect of varying the position at which a given amount 
of verbal information is inserted. 

Eight groups of subjects mastered the stylus maze under — 
various conditions. Four groups each learned the maze with the 
information given during but one trial, viz., the first, second, 
fourth and sixth trials and they are designated respectively as 
A-t-a, A-1-b, A-1-d, and A-1-f. Four groups of subjects each 
learned the problem with the aid of the information during two 
trials, interpolated during the first and second, third and fourth, 
seventh and eighth, and eleventh and twelfth trials, and these 
groups are designated respectively as A-2-ab, A-2-cd, A-2-gh, 
and A-2-kl. Ten subjects each were employed for groups A-I-a, 
A-1-b, A-2-gh and A-2-kl, and fifteen subjects each for groups 
A-1-d, A-1-f, A-2-ab and A-2-cd. In each case the A form of 
verbal information was given. To each subject the amount of 
information and the position at which it was given were made 
known before the experiment was begun. 

The results of these experiments were compared with those of 
the normal group of fifteen subjects who mastered the maze 
without the aid of information at any stage in the process of 
learning. The comparative data are shown in tables 14 and 15. 
Table 14 gives the gross records for all these groups, and table 
I5 gives the percentages of saving of each of the controlled 
groups over the normal group. 

Three main problems may be suggested for discussion: 

(1) Is a given amount of verbal information interpolated at 
various positions universally effective as a control? 

(2) What is the position at which a given amount of verbal 
information produces the maximal effectiveness? What is the 
relative value of the various positions? 














THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 27 
TABLE 14 
Effect of Information Given at Various Positions 
Errors Errors 
Groups Trials per Final Speed 
Retr. | Blind Total Trial 
N 31.66+ 9.33| 67.4 | 138.7 | 2061+8891} 7.11 | 1268+ 1.64 
A-I-a 20.9 + 8.68] 42.7 04.3. | 137.0 + 83.60] 7.08 |18.70+ 3.95 
A-I-b | 23.7 + 5.06] 44.7 098.9 | 143.6 87.12} 615 |21.50+ 4.25 
A-1-d | 23.4 + 8.72] 508 08.2 | 148.9 54.88| 6.51 19.38 + 4.86 
A-1-f 23.5 + 9.70| 40.0 O73. ht27-3 = o2.02). 5.12) "23.22: 410.24 
A-2-ab | 20.4 = 7.54] 348 74.7 | 100.5 + 54.86| 6.74 | 1817+ 4.24 
A-2-cd | 22.8 + 9.22] 41.7 82.7 | 124.4467.76| 5.61 | 18.31 4.44 
A-2-gh | 20.7 + 8.16] 42.8 | 117.8 | 16065084] 5.75 | 31.55 10.45 
A-2-kl | 33.3 £11.3 55.3 | 109.9 | 165.24 38.90/ 5.89 | 19.35 2.38 
TABLE 15 
Percentages of Saving of the Controlled Groups 
Groups Trials Errors Final Speed 
A-I-a 33.98% 33-5370 —47.477%0 
A-I-b 25.14 30.33 —69.56 
A-1-d 26.08 27.76 —52.92 
A-1-f E77, 38.24 —83.12 
A-2-ab 35.50 46.92 —43.29 
A-2-cd 27.98 39.65 —44.47 
A-2-gh 6.19 22.08 —150.47 
A-2-kl —5.12 19.85 —52.65 


(3) Does the optimal position remain unchanged irrespective 
of the amount of information given? 
~The factual results of the experiments reported in this chapter 
may be stated briefly as follows: 

(1) Verbal information, regardless of the amount and the po- 
sition at which it was given, was effective with one exception, in 
decreasing the total number of errors, the number of errors per 
trial, and the final speed for all the eight controlled groups. 

(2) When the information was given during but one trial, its 
effect on the error records for the different groups was prac- 
tically the same as that on the number of trials required to master 
the maze, with one exception. When it was given during two 


28 TSU LIEN WANG 


trials, its effect on the error records was much greater than that 
on the trial records. 

(3) Verbal information given at the initial position produced 
a greater effect upon the trial and error records than it did when 
given in any other position. This is true in all cases except one 
regardless of the amount of information imparted to the sub- 
ject. 

(4) With one exception, the information given at a later stage 
of the learning process was less effective upon the trial and error 
records than it was at an earlier stage. This is true whether the 
information was imparted to the subject during one trial or dur- 
ing two trials. 

(5) There was no consistent tendency in the records for the 
final speed. No definite relationship between these records and 
the various positions at which the information was given was 
apparent. 

(6) In general, the relative effect of the information upon the 
records for both the retracing and the cul de sac errors was prac- 
tically the same. 

(7) Information tended to increase the relative individual 
variability in the trial records in six out of eight cases, in the 
error record in five out of eight cases, and in the record for the 
final speed in all but one case. 

(8) When the information was given during two trials, it 
produced a greater effect upon the trial and error records than 
it did when it was given during one trial in a similar position. 
This general statement is based upon comparisons between the re- 
sults of group A-2-ab with those of groups A-I-a-and A-1-b, and 
the results of group A-2-cd with those of group A-1-d in table 14. 

The advantage of the controlled groups over the normal group 
may be further analyzed in terms of the immediate and the 
subsequent effects of the verbal information. These effects are 
shown in table 16, in which the number of errors per trial in 
the controlled and uncontrolled periods is compared with the cor- 
responding data for the normal group. 

For example, the group which received the information during 
the first trial (A-1-a) made an average error record of 27.60 per 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 20 
TABLE 16 
Immediate and Subsequent Effects of Verbal Information 


No. of Errors per Trial in 


Controlled Period | Uncontrolled Period 








No. | Cor. No.in N | Saving |} No.|Cor.No.inN| Saving 











A-I-a 27.60 79.07 65.00% 5.5 4.1 —34.15% 
A-1-b 8.20 22.06 63.81 3.4 3.5 2.85 
A-1-d 7.70 20.26 61.84. 2.6 2.4 —8.33 
A-1-f 4.90 12.93 62.11 1.8 1.9 5.26 
A-2-ab 24.26 50.86 52.28 3.3 3.5 5.90 
A-2-cd 12.56 18.40 Saal 1.5 2.4 3.75 
A-2-gh 5.25 5.93 11.46 2.1 1.5 —4.00 
A-2-kl : 26 3.40 25.00 1.4 3 —7.09 


trial during the period in which the information was given, and 
an average record of 5.5 per trial during the subsequent uncon- 
trolled period. The corresponding data for the normal group were 
79.07 and 4.1. The percentages of saving and loss due to the 
operation of the information are 65.09 and —34.15 for the two 
periods. . 

The immediate effect of the information upon the error record, 
according to table 16, is always beneficial. The percentages of sav- 
ing tend to decrease at first and then increase as the position at 
which a given amount of information is inserted is shifted towards 
the end of the learning period. This tendency is much more pro- 
nounced in the case in which the information is given during two 
trials than in the one in which it is given during but one trial. 

The immediate effect of a greater amount of information is 
less than that of a smaller amount. But in general the subsequent 
effect of the former is greater than that of the latter. 

The immediate effect of the information upon the error record 
is smaller when the information is given during the two trials 
than when it is given during either one of the two alone. The sub- 
sequent effect in the former condition is greater than that in the 
latter condition. These facts are borne out by comparing group 
A-2-ab with groups A-I-a and A-1-b, and group A-2-cd with 
group A-I-d with respect to their records for the immediate and 
the subsequent effect of the information (See table 16 for data). 


30 TSU LIEN WANG 


The relative value of the various positions at which a given 
amount of information is inserted seems to be a function of the 
combined influence of the immediate and the subsequent effects 
of the information. When both the immediate and the subsequent 
effects are beneficial, the combined influence always operates to 
produce a better record than either one of them alone. When the 
immediate effect is beneficial, the degree of its effect does not 
necessarily determine the efficiency of the group. But when the 
subsequent effect is either beneficial or detrimental, it becomes the 
controlling factor in determining the value of a position at which 
a given amount of information is inserted. For example, among 
the four groups in which the information is given during one 
trial at various positions, group A-1-f made the least number of 
errors in the whole period of learning. This is due to the fact that 
the combined influence of the immediate and the subsequent effects 
is greater in this group than in any one of the other three. Among 
the four groups the immediate effect of the information upon the 
error record in group A-I-f is not so great as that in some other 
groups, but the subsequent effect in this group is greater than any, 
and hence it operated to produce the best error record for this 
group. On the other hand, among the four groups in which the 
information was given during two trials, group A-2-kl made the 
largest number of total errors. This is accounted for by the fact 
that the detrimental effect of the information upon the subsequent 
error record in this group is greater than that in any other group, 
e.g., group A-2-gh, although the immediate effect in group A-2-kl 
is actually greater than that in group A-2-gh. 

The relative efficiency of the groups in five out of eight cases 
is determined by the records for the subsequent effect of the in- 
formation. Only in one case (A-I-d), does the immediate effect 
seem to determine its relative standing. 

That verbal information given during the initial trial or trials is 
more effective than it is when inserted nearer the end of the learn- 
ing period can be explained by the fact that more errors are usually 
made during the first few trials than during the later ones, and 
hence the information has more chance to decrease the error record 
in the initial trials. Another possible reason for the superiority of 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 31 


the initial position may be advanced. We may assume that the 
verbal information produces both a beneficial and a detrimental 
effect upon the error record. It is likely that the detrimental effect 
manifests itself to the least extent during the initial trials. 

It will be remembered that in table 16 the percentages of saving 
during the control period decreases at first and then increases. 
This increase may be explained in this manner: When a subject 
has traversed the maze for a number of times, most of the errors 
are eliminated. A few persist for a number of trials, and the ten- 
dency to make the same set of errors is partly due to a lack of 
caution on the part of the subject. When the subject is told at this 
stage of learnnig that verbal information is to be given, he 
naturally pays more attention to his work, and this additional 
effort is responsible for the greater saving in the error records 
for the comparatively later group of trials during which the in- 
formation is given. 

The fact that the subsequent effect of the information upon the 
error records is sometimes beneficial and sometimes detrimental 
needs some explanation, which must differ for the various groups 
which received different amounts of verbal information. When 
the information is given during the first trial only, its immediate 
beneficial effect is very pronounced ; but the effect is too transitory 
to be lasting. Moreover, the subject learns less in one controlled 
trial than in an uncontrolled one, because the latter permits greater 
freedom for exploration. This combined influence operated to pro- 
duce the detrimental effect upon the subsequent error record for 
group A-1-a. On the other hand, when the controlled trial is 
shifted down towards the end of the learning period, the subse- 
quent effect becomes more beneficial. This is also a product of two 
factors; the experience gained previous to the controlled trial 
plus the immediate beneficial effect make the subsequent effect of 
the information beneficial. However, group A-1-d is the exception 
to the rule. The detrimental effect in this case may be due to the 
operation of chance. In the four two-control groups, the subse- 
quent effect of the information in the first two groups is bene- 
ficial. This is accounted for by the fact that the information given 
during the two trials at the initial positions tends to stay in the 


32 TSU LIEN WANG 


mind of the subject so that he may utilize this knowledge to his 
advantage in the later trials. When the two controlled trials are 
moved down to the later positions, the subsequent effect becomes 
detrimental. The reason is this: When a subject has travelled 
around the maze for some ten times, he has developed a habit of 
going into certain cul de sacs. Here the verbal information tended 
to disrupt the old habit with a resultant confusion. Before the 
correct habit can be established, a considerable number of errors 
are made. This fact is responsible for the percentage of loss in the 
subsequent error records for group A-2-gh and A-2-kl. 


CHAPTER VI 


EFFECT OF VARIOUS DISTRIBUTIONS OF INFORMATION 


The purpose of this chapter is to study the relative efficiency of 
various distributions of a given amount of verbal information. 
In each of the experiments reported in the following pages the A 
form of verbal information was given in six trials distributed in 
various ways. In general, the various distributions fell in two main 
classes. (1) The amount of information interpolated at different 
positions: was varied, while the number of the uncontrolled trials 
in between was kept constant. (2) The number of the uncon- 
trolled trials between the controlled ones was varied, while the 
amount of information interpolated at different positions was 
kept constant. 

Five groups of ten subjects each were employed in the experi- 
ments. The plan of experimentation is evident from the following 
schema : 


(1) The amount of information given at various positions is 


varied: 

A-6-a..de. . hij 
A-6-ab. .ef. .ij 
A-6-abc. .fg..j 


(2) The number of uncontrolled trials between the controlled 
ones is varied: 
A-6-ab. .ef. .ij 
A-6-ab...fg...kl 
A-6-ab....gh....mn 
In the above schema, ‘A’ indicates that the A form of verbal 
information was employed; ‘6,’ the number of trials during which 
the information was given; ‘abcd...,’ the positions at which the 
information was inserted. Thus, A-6-a..de..hij means that the A 
form of verbal information was given for six trials during the 
first, fourth, fifth, eight, ninth, and tenth trials. 
The results of these groups are compared with those of the 
normal group of fifteen subjects who learned the maze without 


34 TSU LIEN WANG 


the aid of any information. The comparative data are given in 
tables 17 and 18. Table 17 gives the gross data for these groups 
and the percentages of saving due to the information. Table 18 
shows the immediate effect of the information for the various 


positions. 


TABLE 17 
Effect of Various Distributions of Information 
Trials Errors Final Speed 

Groups oS ifyaiincn ci mahal lead Mae a Gaia fas 
No. Saving No. Saving No. Saving 

N 31.6 Shena 206.1 Ranue 12.68 eT 
A-6-a..de. hij 25.3 20.08% | 151.4 26.557 | 23.00 | —81.41% 

A-6-ab..ef..ij 24 33.03 147.0 28.68 24.40 | —Q2.43 

A6-abc..fg..j 21.4 32.41 105.8 48.57 28.10 | —121.61 

A-6-ab...fg...kl 20.5 35.24 88.3 57.16 28.42 | —124.12 

A-6-ab....gl....mn 21.6 31.77 130.0 32.56 25.57 | —I01.65 





TABLE 18 
Immediate Effect of Information for Various Positions 
Corresp. 
Groups Contr. Trials Errors Errors Saving 
in N. 
A-6-a..de..hij I 22.3 79.07 71.7076 
4-5 20.0 26.26 23.93 
8-90-10 12.8 11.46 —11.69 
A-6-ab..ef..ij 1-2 50.2 101.27 48.68 
5-6 18.8 19.28 1.97 
9-10 13.1 5.20 —I5I.92 
A-6-abc..fg..j I-2-3 66.9 118.27 _ 43.43 
6-7 5.4 19.20 71.87 
10 3.5 3.13 —11.82 
A-6-ab...f£g...k1 I-2 35.0 101.72 65.59 
6-7 6.8 19.20 64.58 
II-I2 3.6 6.86 47.52 
A-6-ab....gh....mn I-2 50.8 101.72 50.05 
7-8 8.6 11.86 27.48 
13-14 4.9 6.26 21.72 


The factual results of the experiments reported in an chapter 
may be summarized as follows: 
(1) Verbal information, whatever the way it was distributed, 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 35 


was universally effective in decreasing the number of trials re- 
quired to master the maze, the number of errors made in the en- 
tire learning period, and the final speed. 

(2) On the whole, it affected the records for the final speed 
most, the error records next and the trial records least. 

(3) With one exception, the effect of the information on the 
trial records for all the groups was practically on a par. This ten- 
dency did not exist in the scores for error and final speed. 

(4) When the amount of information given at various posi- 
tions was varied and the number of the uncontrolled trials between 
positions: was constant, the group which received the largest 
amount of information during the initial trials was in general 
the most efficient, 7.e., A-6-abc. .fg..j. 

(5) When the number of the uncontrolled trials between the 
controlled ones was varied, and the amount of information given 
at various positions was constant, the groups which had the infor- 
mation given during two trials at a time with three uncontrolled 
trials in between was the most efficient one, 1.e., A-6-ab.. . fg... kl 

(6) When all the different distributions were taken into con- 
sideration, the best distribution of the six trials consisted of two 
controlled trials given at a time with three uncontrolled ones in 
between. 

(7) With one exception, the information given during the 
initial group of trials exerted the greatest immediate effect upon 
the error records, while the least effect was invariably produced 
by the last group (See table 18). 

The relative efficiency of the different distributions of a given 
amount of verbal information is a function of its immediate and 
subsequent effects. When both the immediate and the subsequent 
effects are beneficial, the combined influence tends to produce a 
better record than either one of the two would alone. When one 
of them is detrimental, it determines the efficiency of the distribu- 
tion. These facts are shown in table 19, in which the immediate 
and the subsequent effects are stated in terms of the percentages 
of saving or loss of each of these groups in respect to the normal 
group. 

Thus, among the groups in which the amount of information 


36 TSU LIEN WANG 
TABLE 19 
Immediate and Subsequent Effects of Information 


No. of Errors per Trial in 


Groups Controlled Period Uncontrolled Period 
Cor. No. Cor. No. 

No. in N Saving No. in N Saving 
A-6-a..de..hij 9.20 19.46 52.72% | 4.0 3.5 —40.007%0 
A-6-ab..ef..1j 13.71 21.15 35.22 4.2 SL —35.49 
A-6-abc..fg..j 12.20 Rey, 47.57 2 Ze 16.00 
A-6-ab...fg...k1 bho 4 8 5) 64.17 2.9 aa 6.45 
A-6-ab....gh....mn | 12.40 19.97 37.91 4.8 3.4 —41.18 


given at various positions is varied and the number of the inter- 
vening uncontrolled trials is constant, group A-6-abc..fg..j is 
the most efficient, because of the beneficial effects of the informa- 
tion, both immediate and subsequent. Group A-6-ab..ef..ij is 
more efficient than group A-6-a..de..hij, because the detrimental 
subsequent effect of the information in the latter is greater than 
that in the former. Similarly, among the groups in which the 
number of the uncontrolled trials between the controlled ones is 
varied and the amount of information given at various positions 
is kept constant, groups A-6-ab...fg...klis the most efficient, be- 
cause both the immediate and the subsequent effects of the in- 
formation are beneficial. Group A-6-ab. .ef..ij is more efficient 
than group A-6-ab....gh....mmn, because the detrimental effect 
of the information upon the subsequent uncontrolled trials in the 
former is smaller than that in the latter. ’ 

The relative efficiency of these groups may also be measured in 
terms of the records for the final speed. The most efficient groups 
are those whose subjects perform the task with much deliberation 
and hence with lower speed. Among the three groups in which thé 
number of the uncontrolled trials between the controlled ones is 
varied, group A-6-ab...fg...klis the most efficient. The subjects 
in this group travelled slower than those in any other group. Simi- 
larly, group A-6-abc. .fg..j is the most efficient among those in 
which the number of the controlled trials is varied at various 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 37 


positions and it exhibits a comparatively low speed record. When 
all the controlled groups are taken into consideration, it has been 
shown that group A-6-ab...fg...kl is the most efficient, and the 
final speed for this group is lower than that for any other group. 


CHAPRTHREVIT 


EFFEct oF INFORMATION CONCERNING TYPES OF ERROR 


In this chapter we shall study the effect of giving verbal infor- 
mation concerning the various types of error upon learning the 
maze. Three groups of fifteen subjects each mastered the maze 
under different conditions. The members of group X were in- 
formed only of each retracing error as they made it; those of 
group Y, of each cul de sac error; and those of group A (the 
same group reported in Chapter III), of both types of error. In 
all cases the information was imparted to the subjects during every 
trial involved in learning the maze. 

The results of these groups were compared with those of the 
normal group of fifteen subjects who learned the maze without any 
kind of information concerning their errors. The comparative 
data are given in table 20 in terms of the total number of trials, 
the retracing and the cul de sac errors, the total number of errors 
and the final speed. 


TABLE 20 
Effect on Information Concerning Types of Error 
Errors 
Groups Trials) | a ee Final Speed 
Retracing| Culdesac| Total 

N 31.66 67.4 138.7 206.1 12.68 

x 37.80 46.1 140.2 186.3 21.32 

ne 23.07 62.1 06.2 158.3 21.15 

A 22.27 28.8 74.4 , 103.20 oe 21.81 


The factual results of these experiments may be summarized as 
follows: 

(1) Verbal information operated to decrease the records for 
the total number of errors made during the entire period of learn- 
ing and to increase the records for the final speed in all cases. It 
decreased the total number of trials required to master the maze 
in all but one case. 

(2) When the subjects were informed of one type of error 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 39 


only (be it retracing or cul de sac), they made poorer records for 
the total number of trials, the retracing and the cul de sac errors, 
and the total number of errors than did those who received infor- 
mation concerning both types of error. The records for the final 
speed are practically on a par in the two cases. 

(3) Information concerning the cul de sac errors produced a 
more beneficial effect upon learning the maze than did that con- 
cerning the retracing errors. The former tended to decrease the 
total number of trials, while the latter exhibited the opposite ten- 
dency. 

(4) Information concerning the retracing errors cut down the 
retracing errors but not the cul de sac errors, while that concern- 
ing the cul de sac errors decreased the total number of cul de sac 
errors but not the retracing errors. 

That the results of group A are superior to those of either group 
X or group Y is too obvious to require any explanation. So also 
is the fact that the error records for groups A, X and Y are su- 
perior to that for the normal group. 

The superiority of the trial records for the groups A and Y 
over that for the normal group may be accounted for by the low 
error records for the former groups.. 

The fact that the trial record for group X is inferior to that for 
the normal group needs explanation. Several possibilities may be 
advanced : 

(1) The inferior trial record for group X may be due to the 
operation of chance. But this is hardly probable. In table 21 the 
distribution of the individual trial records for each group is giv- 


TABLE 21 


Distribution of Individual Trials 


Groups Individual Trial Records 
N 1715159) 24, 24° 267-208 (29° 37° 38’ 30° 30 30 45° -62 
x Ouest hed 25 3 Thy Sa 23 430, AS CAD AD 259) 6165 
Y POL eee Sasori) Grek oer es 23 24.0 24. 32 440 
A SO ere ls) 17— 184.10 620) 22425 4 202.28. 30, ATIFAG 


40 TSU LIEN WANG 


en. It will be seen that group X has just as consistent a distribution 
of the individual trial records as that of any one of the other three 
groups. It starts higher and ends higher than any other one; also 
it has the highest median (33) among the four. The high trial 
record, then, is not due to any one unusually large individual 
record. 

(2) The inferiority of the trial record for group X may be due 
to a change of attitude on the part of the experimenter toward the 
subjects. This is not likely the case, because groups X and Y were 
run simultaneously. Were there such a change of attitude on the 
part of the experimenter, it would have affected the results of 
group X as well as those of group Y. 

(3) A third possible explanation may be given in terms of the 
attitude of the subjects. In group X the subjects soon developed 
the habit of relying upon the experimenter for the information 
concerning the retracing error. This attitude of dependence on the 
part of the subjects actually delayed the complete elimination of ~ 
the retracing errors. Thus, in the normal group the habit of the 
subjects of retracing the correct pathway was dislodged on the 
average by the end of the eighteenth trial, while the same habit 
persisted in group X to the end of the twenty-second one. Inas- 
much as the elimination of the retracing errors was usually com- 
pleted long before that of the cul de sac errors, this delay in com- 
pleting the elimination of the retracing errors also postponed the 
complete elimination of the cul de sac errors. Hence, the trial 
record was prolonged. 

(4) Since in group X the attention of the subjects was called 
to the retracing errors alone, naturally they were more cautious 
about them than about the cul de sac errors. This insufficiency of 
attention given to the latter was responsible not only for the de- 
layed final elimination of the cul de sac errors but also for their 
large number. Thus, the number of the cul de sac errors in the nor- 
mal group was 138.7, while that in group X was 140.2. This high 
record for the cul de sac errors together with the consequent post- 
ponement of their final elimination may. account for the high trial 
record. 

(5) The knowledge obtained from the information concerning 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 41 


the retracing errors is much less definite than that of the cul de sac 
error. Information concerning the retracing error often gives rise 
to confusion on the part of the subjects resulting in uncertainty 
in their work. Such confusion not only favors the rise of errors 
but also gives occasion for them to persist. Both these factors 
tend to produce a high trial record. 

Whatever the explanation one may adopt, the fact remains that 
information concerning the retracing errors when given alone 
tends to prolong the trial record. 

It is also significant to note that information concerning the 
cul de sac errors is more beneficial in learning the maze than that 
concerning the retracing errors. The former exerts a beneficial 
influence on both the trial and error records, while the latter proves 
detrimental to the trial record and beneficial to the error record 
only to a very limited extent. 


CHAPTERSVITT 


INSTRUCTIONAL VS. INFORMATIONAL METHODS OF TUITION 


In the previous chapters we have studied the effect of two dif- 
ferent methods of tuition upon maze learning: (1) The Instruc- 
tional method by means of which the subject is guided over the 
correct pathway and all possibility of errors is prevented and (2) 
the Informational method in which the subject is informed of each 
error as it is made. The influence of the former was studied in 
Chapter IT and that of the latter in Chapters III-VI inclusive. 

This chapter is concerned with a comparison of the relative 
efficiency of these two forms of tuition in acquiring an act of skill. 
Only three groups were given comparable amounts of- tuition by 
the two methods, viz., those to whom the tuition was given for 
the first trial, the first two trials and the initial eight trials. The 
comparative data presented in table 22 were calculated in terms ~ 
of the superiority of the method of Instruction. For example, 
group D-2-ab which was given instructions during the first two 
trials made a better record than did group A-2-ab which was 
given a similar amount of Information. Group D-2-ab was su- 
perior to group A-2-ab by 6.69% in trial, 55.74% and 45.38% 
respectively in retracing and cul de sac errors, and 66.62% in the 
number of errors per trial. It was inferior to group A-2-ab by 
18.63% in final speed. 


TABLE 22 > 


Instructional vs. Informational Methods of Tuition 


\ Errors Errors 
Groups Trials | ————_———————_|_ per Final Speed 
Retrac. Blind Trial 


D-1-a vs. A-I-a —4.78%| 22.95% 27.14% | 41.82% —27.23% 
D-2-ab vs. A-2-ab 6.69 55.74 45.38 66.62 —18.63 
D-8-a..h vs. A-8-a..h | 35.46 58.73 61.33 75.89 — 2.91 





These data justify the following conclusions: 
(1) With one exception, the Instructional Method of tuition 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 43 


is the more effective upon the scores for trials, the two kinds of 
error, the average number of errors per trial and the final speed. 

(2) Its relative efficiency increases with the amount of instruc- 
tion given. 

The superiority of the instructional over the informational 
method of tuition in the trial and error records may be explained 
in several ways: (1) The absence of error when the instructional 
method was employed—In the groups in which the instructional 
method was employed, the subjects had no chance to make any 
error during the controlled trials. In those to whom the informa- 
tion was given during a given number of trials, the subjects did 
make a number of errors during the controlled period. This dif- 
ference operates to decrease the error for the instructional meth- 
od. (2) The kind of knowledge of the maze—Verbal instructions 
give the subjects a knowledge of the correct pathway, while verbal 
information aids them in the discovery of the errors. The former 
is a case of positive guidance, while the latter is one of negative 
assistance. It is a common sense pedagogical principle that positive 
instruction is always more effective than negative assistance. 

The fact that ‘the instructional groups exhibited a lower speed 
record than the informational groups can be explained in terms of 
the degree of caution on the part of the subjects. The instructional 
method seemed to induce within the subjects a more cautious atti- 
tude than did the informational method. With the former method 
the subjects acquired a knowledge of the correct pathway but not 
of the cul de sacs. Consequently, conscious of this deficiency, they 
worked very carefully and hence slowly. With the latter method, 
the subjects acquired a knowledge of both. With a certain degree 
of familiarity of the paths of the maze, they travelled over them 
with comparatively less hesitancy and higher speed than those 
who worked with the former method. 


CHAPTER TX 


INCIDENTAL OBSERVATIONS 


The incidental observations reported in this chapter are the by- 
products in the general inquiry concerning the influences of tui- 
tion upon learning a stylus maze. These observations will be 
treated in the most summary fashion under the following topics: 
(A) Individual differences, (B) Sex differences, and (C) Order 
of elimination of the cul de sac errors. 

(A) ‘Individual Differences—Under ‘this topic there will be 
studied individual differences (1) as indicated by the various 
criteria of learning, (2) in the order of error elimination, and 
(3) in the modes of attacking the problems. 

(1) Individual differences as indicated by the various criteria 
of learning—Individual differences within one group are com-. 
pared with those in the other groups with reference to their rec- 
ords for trial, error, and final speed. These comparative data are 
given in table 23, in which each value represents the extreme range 
of individual differences within any one group expressed in terms 
of the percentage of the poorest over the best. For example, the — 
poorest record in the normal group is worse than the best by 
360% in trial, 420% in error and 150% in final speed. 

The facts in this table justify the following conclusions : 

(a) In a comparison of the range of individual differences 
within each of the twenty-one groups with that of the normal 
group, thirteen are found to show greater variability in trials, 
seventeen in errors, and twenty-one in final speed. Tuition, in gen- 
eral, increased the extreme range of individual differences within 
a group. 

(b) With the exception of the records for the final speed, the 
range of individual differences within the group is on the whole 
smaller in the D groups (Instructional Method) than in the A 
groups (Informational Method). 

(c) In general, individuals differ most widely in errors, next 
in trials, and least in final speed. | 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 45 


TABLE 23 
Individual Differences as Indicated by Various Criteria of Learning 





Groups Subjects Trials Errors Final Speed 

N 15 360% 420% 150% 
D-1-a 10 250 272 1070 
D-2-ab fe) 520 580 320 
D-4-a—d 10 410 610 
D-8-a. .h Io 330 393 350 
D-16-a..p 10 210 640 520 

A 15 570 1540 450 
A-I-a fe) 510 1130 270 
A-2-ab 15 400 1640 290 
A-8-a..h 15 270 1510 330 
A-I2-a..1 Ke) 460 2330 220 
A-I-b 10 340 1330 220 
A-1I-d 15 420 1790 290 
A-1-f I5 600 2520 610 
A-2-cd 15 690 2320 270 
A-2-gh 10 600 470 420 
A-2-kl 10 430 420 190 
A-6a..de..hij Io 430 550 390 
A-6-ab..ef..ij Io 310 730 310 
A-6-abe..fg..j 10 180 300 370 
A-6-ab...fg...kl 10 220 510 310 
A-6-ab....gh....mn , 10 530 1220 160 


(2) Individual differences in error elimination—An examina- 
tion of 86 records shows that various cul de sacs attracted indi- 
viduals differently. The following table gives the cul de sacs elim- 
inated first and last (as indicated by the figures in the first row). 
The figure opposite each cul de sac indicates the number of persons 
who eliminated that cul de sac error in the same temporal order. 
The asterisk shows the greatest number of persons who eliminated 
a cul de sac error in the same order. 

From this table it is evident that (1) individuals differ much 
more greatly in the cul de sac errors which are eliminated first than 
those eliminated last, and (2) the tendency to eliminate the cul 
de sacs G and E last is very marked. 

(3) Individual differences in the mode of attacking the prob- 
lem—As observed individuals seem to have different methods of 
learning the maze. The following are typical: (a) The maze pat- 
tern was visualized in the first few trials and the visual image of 


46 TSU LIEN WANG 
TABLE 24 


Showing Cul-de-sacs Eliminated first and last 


Cul de sacs Ist and 15th 16th 
Goal E’f 5 I II 7 
End F’ II 10 I 
G’ 16 7 
hae 17 5 
be! 7 16* 2 2 
A’ 21* 2 I 
B’ 4 3 10 14 
Ci II ro 
G I 7 18* 24* 
F 10 13 2 
E I 3 30* 21* 
wi 9 6 13 2 
D 10 12 3 2 
G 18 15* 
Entr. B 14 14 
End A 22* 13 





+ E’=Cul de sac on the other side of E; F’, the other side of F; etc. 


the pattern was employed as a guide in the subsequent ones. (b) 
The arm movements employed in learning were remembered. Some ~ 
of the subjects discovered that the movements for the two halves 
of the maze were almost identical and that those employed in the 
center were of the stair-case fashion. Some mastered the maze 
(c) by being able to judge the distances between the sections of 
the correct path; others (d) simply remembered the exact direction 
to go to the goal end. (e) Several went through the maze correctly 
by being able to remember against which side of the groove to lean 
the stylus. (f) A number of them were able to keep the stylus in 
the right groove by remembering the number of sections traversed. 
No attempt has been made to correlate the modes of attack and 
the efficiency of the work. It is probably a matter of individual 
preference. A method employed advantageously by one may be 
adopted by the other to his utter disadvantage. 

(B) Sex differences—The facts about sex differences are sum- 
marized in the following table in which the figures in the brackets 
indicate the number of cases which goes to make up the average. 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 47 


TABLE 25 
Sex Differences 
N A D 
Criteria SSS eek RENTS Ee eee Sea Ge at a eee 
M (8) | F(7)_ | M(120) | F (70) | M (36) | F (14) 
Trial 31.75 BiB: 117.50 25.607 22.42 29.07 
Error 176.59 226.71 21.83 144.65 36.61 75.04 
Fin. Speed 11.50 13.37 21.61 22.31 24.40 25.47 


On the whole women made a poorer record than men. The 
greatest difference is in the error record and the smallest in the 
record for the final speed. A greater sex difference exists in the 
D-form than in the A-form of tuition. These differences, how- 
ever, may be due to the comparatively small number of records 
for women. 

(C) Order of elimination of the cul de sac errors—In the study 
of the individual differences in the order of elimination of the cul 
de sac errors, we were impressed by the fact that there was no 
definite relationship between the spatial order of the cul de sacs 
and the temporal order of their elimination so far as the four cases 
there considered were concerned (see table 24). In order to sub- 
stantiate this statement 86 records were studied with reference to 
the order of elimination of all the sixteen cul de sac errors. The re- 
sults are shown in table 26, in which each figure represents the 
average of 86 records. 


TABLE 26 


Relationship between Spatial Order of Cul de Sacs and Temporal Order 
_ of Their Elimination 


Order fr. Entrance Taro eshe aS Ona O OM ION TT arora eT Age TS 16 
Blind Alley Petes nie Tore we oA a Odd) GOR Ee 
Groietioteuiiamat. | ¥ 71. 6 13°18" 5 16 (6°14) los Ir 2 4 8 12 


Our results do not support the contention of a backward elimi- 
nation of the cul de sac errors; nor do they give evidence for any 
current theory of error elimination in the maze. On the contrary, 
they seem to indicate that the temporal order of the elimination of 
the cul de sac errors is a function of the nature or the peculiar 


48 TSU LIEN WANG 


position of the cul de sacs. Cul de sacs C, A, G’ and H’ (see Fic. 1) 
were eliminated first because they were more or less out of the way 
with respect to the correct pathway. Cul de sacs G, E, B’ and E’ 
were eliminated last, because they occupied peculiarly attractive 
positions. Cul de sac E is located at the end of a comparatively 
short runway perpendicular to a very long section of the correct 
pathway. On emerging from this long section, the subjects usually 
over-estimated the distance of this short runway ending in cul de 
sac E,. Hence, instead of going into the opening to the correct 
pathway, which was a little distance from E, they usually passed 
over this opening and made an error at E. A similar explanation 
can be given for the frequent entrance into the cul de sacs G, B’ 
and EK’. 

Another interesting fact may be noted in connection with the 
study of the temporal order of elimination of the cul de sac errors. 
The initial and final errors were eliminated first. This seems to 
follow the general law in memory work, that the material at the 
two ends of a series is always mastered first. 


CHAPTERAXS 


SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 


In this study of the influence of tuition upon learning a stylus 
maze, two forms of tuition were employed; namely, the method 
of verbal instruction and the method of verbal information. 

Without a single exception, tuition operated to decrease the 
number of errors made during the entire period of learning and 
the average final speed employed to travel through the correct 
pathway. It operated to decrease the total number of trials re- 
quired to master the maze in twenty-one out of twenty-three 
cases. The decrease of the error records due to the operation of 
tuition was obvious. That tuition operated to decrease the final 
speed was explained by the fact that it induced in the subjects the 
attitude of caution, which meant slow movement. This attitude 
of caution induced by the tuition seemed to be the reason for the 
effectiveness of tuition in learning. 

Without exception tuition affected the records for the final 
speed most, the error records next, and the trial records least. 

The effect of tuition on the retracing errors was invariably 
greater than that on the cul de sac errors. 

Of the two forms of tuition employed in this investigation, the 
instructional method proved to be more effective than the informa- 
tional method. 

Of the three forms of verbal information employed, method C 
(naming each error by the experimenter after it was made) was 
slightly more efficient than methods A and B. The differences be- 
tween them were too small to be significant. Method A was, how- 
ever, chosen for the various investigations of the effect of the 
verbal information upon learning the maze, because it was easily 
administered. 

In the study of the effect of various amounts of tuition upon 
learning the maze, it was brought out that the effectiveness at first 
increased and then decreased, as the number of the controlled 
trials was increased. This was true for both the methods of in- 
struction and that of information. In the former the number of 


50 TSU LIEN WANG 


controlled trials that produced the optimal effectiveness was four, 
while in the latter it was eight. The reason for the increase of the 
efficacy of tuition at first is self-evident. The decrease of its effect- 
iveness after the optimal number of controlled trials was reached 
has been explained in terms of the amount of tuition given in ad- 
dition to the optimal amount. This additional amount was con- 
sidered to be superfluous. Superfluous trials necessarily increase 
the trial and error records. Any excessive amount of tuition is apt 
to develop either an attitude of over-confidence or a habit of de- 
pendence upon the experimenter, both of which are responsible for 
the high trial and error records. 

When a given amount of verbal information was imparted at 
various positions, the initial position was found to be the most 
effective. This is true irrespective of the amount of information 
imparted to the subjects. The relative value of the various posi- 
tions seems to be a function of the combined influence of the im- 
mediate and the subsequent effects of the information upon the 
error records. The maximal effectiveness of the information at the 
initial position was explained in two ways: (1) The information 
gave more chance to decrease the errors, since more errors were 
usually made during the initial trials than during the subsequent ~ 
ones. (2) It was assumed that the information, capable of pro- 
ducing both beneficial and detrimental effects upon the error rec- 
ords, tended to exert the greatest beneficial and the least detrimen- 
tal influence during the initial trials. 

When the verbal information was given during six trials dis- 
tributed in various ways, the best distribution was found to con- 
sist of two controlled trials given at a time with three uncon- 
trolled ones in between. 

When the subjects were informed of one type of error only (be 
it retracing or cul de sac), they made poorer records for the total 
number of trials, the retracing and the cul de sac errors, and the 
total number of errors than did those who received information 
concerning both types of error. The records for the final speed 
are practically on a par in the two cases. 

Information concerning the cul de sac errors produced a more 
beneficial effect upon learning the maze than did that concerning 


THE INFLUENCE OF TUITION 51 


the retracing errors. The former exerted a beneficial influence 
on both the trial and error records, while the latter proved detri- 
mental to the trial record and beneficial to the error record only to 
a very limited extent. 

The superiority of the instructional over the informational 
method of tuition on the trial and error records has been explained 
in terms of (1) the absence of errors when the former method 
was employed, and (2) the nature of the tuition, 7.v., positive 
guidance vs. negative assistance, the former being naturally more 
effective than the latter. The superiority of the informational 
groups over the instructional groups in the scores for the final 
speed was explained in terms of the degree of caution induced by 
the two forms of tuition. The instructional form induced within 
the subjects a more cautious attitude than the informational form, 
because the former gave them a knowledge of the correct pathway 
only, while the latter enabled them to obtain this and also a gen- 
eral knowledge of the cul de sacs entered. 

Marked individual differences existed in all the experiments 
reported in this investigation. In general, individuals differ most 
widely in errors, next in trials and least in final speed. 

Sex differences in the ability to learn the maze were not very 
pronounced. On the whole, women made a slightly poorer record 
than men. 

There was no definite relationship between the spatial order of 
the cul de sacs and the temporal order of their elimination. The 
temporal order of elimination of the cul de sac errors seems to be 
a function of the peculiar position of the cul de sacs in the maze. 
In general, it was found that the cul de sacs at both the entrance 
and the goal ends were eliminated first. 


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The influence of tuition in the 


Princeton Theological Seminary—Speer Library 


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